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Characteristics and Overview of Wars on the Korean Peninsula

The wars that occurred on the Korean Peninsula have unique characteristics distinct from those in Europe or other parts of Asia. While some similarities exist, the defining feature of wars in Korea is that they were predominantly defensive rather than offensive. Unlike many nations that expanded through conquest, Korea rarely initiated wars to invade or attack other countries.

Korean wars can be broadly classified into two major phases:

1. Before the Unification of the Three Kingdoms – A period marked by conflicts intertwined with the formation of the Korean people and nation.
2. After the Unification of Silla – A period dominated by defensive wars to protect the nation from external threats.

1. Wars Before the Unification of Silla

From ancient Gojoseon to the Three Kingdoms period, the Korean Peninsula witnessed numerous wars involving China, northern nomadic tribes, and Japan. These wars varied in nature, but many stemmed from territorial ambitions and the desire for expansion. Both defensive and offensive wars took place, depending on the geopolitical conditions of surrounding powers such as China and Japan.

During this era, military conflicts were often a response to shifting regional dynamics. At times, Korea defended itself against external invasions, while at other times, it waged wars for territorial expansion. The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in the late 7th century marked a turning point, not only laying the foundation for the Korean national identity but also transitioning future wars into primarily defensive engagements for national survival.

2. Defensive Wars After the Unification of Silla

Following the unification of Silla, wars on the Korean Peninsula were largely defensive, responding to invasions from both the south (Japan) and the north (various nomadic and imperial powers). This pattern of “Southern Japanese, Northern Nomads” (南倭北狄, Namwae Bukjeok) aggression persisted for centuries.

Korea faced repeated invasions from:

• The South: Japanese pirates (Wokou 倭寇) and later, large-scale invasions such as the Imjin War (1592–1598).
• The North: The Khitans (Liao), Jurchens (Jin), Mongols (Yuan), and later the Manchus (Qing).

It is often said that Korea has never invaded another country, but this is mainly true for the post-unification period. Some exceptions exist, such as the expansion into the northern territories (e.g., the establishment of the Four Districts and Six Garrisons) and punitive expeditions against Japanese pirates (e.g., the invasion of Tsushima Island). However, the overall military history of Korea from the late Silla period onward was defined by its efforts to repel foreign invasions rather than launch conquests.

This defensive trend continued into the 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of Western powers and Japan’s renewed aggression. Korea remained a battleground for external forces rather than an instigator of war, a pattern that persisted through the modern era, including the Korean War (1950–1953).

Thus, Korean military history is unique in that it reflects a long-standing struggle for survival rather than expansion, with wars primarily fought to defend sovereignty and protect the people from external threats.

Period	War/Incident	Summary
109–108 B.C.	Gojoseon-Han War	The Han Dynasty attacked Gojoseon, leading to its fall and the establishment of the Four Commanderies of Han.
300 or 400 – Until the Three Kingdoms were unified (A.D. 668)	Wars of the Three Kingdoms	Constant territorial disputes and power struggles among Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Numerous battles took place throughout the Three Kingdoms period.
598–614	Goguryeo-Sui Wars	The Sui Dynasty attempted multiple invasions of Goguryeo but failed due to strong resistance, including the Battle of Salsu led by Eulji Mundeok.
645–668	Goguryeo-Tang War	The Tang Dynasty invaded Goguryeo, and after prolonged battles, Goguryeo fell. Silla allied with Tang in the conflict.
670–676	Silla-Tang War	Silla fought against the Tang Dynasty and emerged victorious, leading to the unification of most of the Korean Peninsula.
892–936	Later Three Kingdoms War	A civil war among Later Baekje, Later Goguryeo (Later Goryeo), and Silla. Goryeo ultimately unified the peninsula.
1010–1019	Goryeo-Khitan Wars	The Liao Dynasty (Khitan) invaded Goryeo three times but was repelled, notably in the Battle of Guiju led by General Gang Gam-chan.
1104–1109	Goryeo-Jurchen War	General Yun Gwan led an expedition against the Jurchens and built the Nine Fortresses, but they were later returned to the Jurchens.
1231–1259	Goryeo-Mongol Wars	The Mongol Empire invaded Goryeo multiple times. Goryeo resisted but eventually accepted Mongol suzerainty.
1359–1362	Red Turban Invasions	The Red Turbans from China invaded Goryeo twice; King Gongmin led the defense and reclaimed Kaesong.
1388	Wihwado Retreat	General Yi Seong-gye, sent to attack the Ming Dynasty, turned his troops back at Wihwado and seized power, leading to the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty.
1398, 1400	Strife of the Princes	Power struggles among royal princes over succession in the early Joseon Dynasty.
1592–1598	Imjin War (Japanese Invasions of Korea)	Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea. Joseon and Ming China fought back, ultimately driving the Japanese out.
1597–1598	Jeongyu War	A continuation of the Imjin War, including Admiral Yi Sun-sin’s famous Battle of Myeongnyang.
1624	Revolt of Yi Gwal	A rebellion led by General Yi Gwal against King Injo, briefly capturing Hanyang (Seoul) before being suppressed.
1627	First Manchu Invasion (Jeongmyo War)	The Later Jin (early Qing Dynasty) invaded Joseon, leading to a peace treaty where Joseon acknowledged Jin as a “brother nation.”
1636–1637	Second Manchu Invasion (Byeongja War)	The Qing Dynasty invaded Joseon again, forcing King Injo to submit and recognize Qing supremacy.
1654, 1658	Russian Expeditions (Nasun Expeditions)	Joseon sent troops to assist Qing China in repelling Russian Cossacks from the Amur region.
1871	United States-Korea Conflict (Shinmiyangyo)	The U.S. attacked Ganghwa Island following a diplomatic dispute; Korean forces resisted but ultimately lost.
1875	Unyo Incident	A Japanese warship provoked a battle at Ganghwa Island, leading to the Treaty of Ganghwa, which opened Korea to Japan.
1884	Gapsin Coup	A failed coup by reformist leaders backed by Japan, leading to increased Chinese influence in Korea.
1894–1895	First Sino-Japanese War	A war between China and Japan over control of Korea, ending in Japan’s victory and increased dominance over Korea.
1895	Eulmi Incident	The assassination of Queen Min (Empress Myeongseong) by Japanese agents to solidify Japanese influence.
1904–1905	Russo-Japanese War	A war between Japan and Russia over Korea and Manchuria, ending in Japan’s victory and solidifying its control over Korea.
1910–1945	Armed Resistance Against Japanese Occupation	Korean independence forces fought Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea, including the Battles of Fengwudong and Qingshanli.
1919	March 1st Movement	A nationwide movement for Korean independence, leading to the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
1920	Battle of Fengwudong	Korean independence fighters won a significant victory against Japanese forces.
1920	Battle of Qingshanli	General Kim Jwa-jin led independence forces to a major victory over the Japanese army.
1937–1945	Anti-Japanese Resistance Movement	Ongoing armed resistance, including activities by the Korean Liberation Army and the Korean Volunteer Army.
1950–1953	Korean War	North Korea invaded South Korea, leading to international intervention. The war ended in an armistice in 1953.